Definition and Examples of English Mental-State Verbs

In English grammar  and speech-act theory, a mental-state verb is a  verb with a meaning related to understanding, discovering, planning, or deciding. Mental-state verbs refer to cognitive states that are generally unavailable for outside evaluation. Also known as a mental verb. Common mental-state verbs in English include know, think, learn, understand, perceive, feel, guess, recognize, notice, want, wish, hope, decide, expect, prefer, remember, forget, imagine, and believe. Letitia R. Naigles notes that mental-state verbs are notoriously polysemous, in that each is associated with multiple senses (Manipulating the Input in  Perception, Cognition, and Language, 2000). Examples and Observations Here are some examples of the usage of mental verbs as well as observations about the rhetorical term. Mental and Performative Meanings [T]he meanings of mental verbs are propositional: when a speaker uses the verb recognize as a mental verb, e.g. in the sentence:  Of course I recognize your handwriting, the speaker refers only to his or her role as the experiencer of a mental process. In contrast, the performative meaning of recognize, as in the sentence I hereby recognize Mr. Smith, presupposes interpersonal elements inherent to the speech act situation, such as the social relationship between the speaker and interlocutors. -Traugott and Dasher Mental State Verbs and Recursion [O]ne of the hallmarks of human language is recursion, or the ability to embed one sentence inside of another sentence, like Russian nested dolls. . . . Mental state verbs such as think and know provide semantic scaffolding for creating complex sentences with embedding.  -Klein, Moses, and Jean-BaptisteMental state verbs can act like action verbs, fitting into the canonical subject-verb format, as in I know that and I think so. But mental state verbs are about the contents of our minds,  which we express as sentences, and so their meaning supports the syntactic process of embedding a sentence in the object position to form sentences like: I know Mommy likes flowers and I think Daddys sleeping. -David Ludden​ Mental State Verbs in Argumentative Speech and Writing Mental verbs are useful for qualifying  facts and opinions; for example, Many people think that, is often more effective in an argument than It is a fact that . . .. The latter, by being an absolute statement, forces the reader into either total agreement or disagreement, while the former allows room for argument. -Knapp and Watkins   The Nonagentive Character of Mental State Verbs [I]n English, the nonagentive character of mental state verbs is manifested by the preference for the dative preposition to rather than the agentive preposition by in the passive (in consequence, the passive is stative): Toms teaching ability is known by all his colleagues. Toms teaching ability is known to all his colleagues. -Croft Auxiliary Verbs Associated With Performative, Mental-State, and Mental-Act Verbs The auxiliaries most associated with performatives are make, give, and issue, whereas the mental-state verbs share have (to have a belief) along with a host of interesting alternatives. One can nourish a hope, cherish a belief, and hide an intention. What we hold in some mental state, we can issue in some illocutionary act. Mental-act verbs, as might be expected, lie in between. Some, such as decide, choose, and identify, share make with performatives, but not issue, except in issuing a decision (in which case the verb functions as a performative). -Lee Learning Mental-State Verbs (Language Acquisition) [A]bstract mental state verbs appear early and are used quite frequently by children as young as 3 and 4 years... Apparently, children (and speakers in general) learn about the invisible referents of mental state verbs by first associating these verbs with the performance of particular sorts of communicative acts, and later focusing the reference of the verb on particularly salient features of those acts--namely, on the mental states of communicative agents... Intuitively, it seems unsurprising that children should master the more formulaic and pragmatically loaded depictive uses of mental state verbs before they take on truly referential and compositional uses; but it is actually not obvious why this should be the case. The fact is, the pragmatic uses are not really so simple. The pragmatics of hedging implicit in the use of a formula like [I think] crucially depends on an ability to calculate the potential risks to oneself and to ones audience involved in an act of assertion. Inasmuch as children are able to use such formulae appropriately in spontaneous discourse, it would seem that they can make such calculations, at least unconsciously. -Israel Displaying Interpretive FunctionStudents of discourse have distinguished exposition styles that call attention to the person and role of the speaker and those that mask or background the speaker. The difference is marked by an absence or presence of frames that comment upon the conversational situation. Some of these frames are obvious, like the introductory, self-deprecating jokes to encourage audience-speaker bonding. Some are subtle, like the use of mental verbs, such as I think that..., or verbs of assertion, such as I contend that... I will refer to mental verbs and verbs of assertion collectively as mental state verbs... [M]ental state verbs allow a speaker to stop short of direct assertion, framing a statement as product of the mind of the speaker rather than presenting it as unfiltered fact in the world. Compare the direct statement, The sky is blue, and the framed statements, The sky seems blue, or I think the sky is blue, or I swear, that sky is blue. The framed statements are said to mark uncertainty because they signal that the assertion reflects a fallible thought process. Although mental state verbs have been classified by some scholars as signs of deference or powerlessness, they are ambiguous and versatile expressions. In my own research, I have found that they can represent not only uncertainty, but also an openness to negotiation in the domains in which they are used and an openness to the thoughts and opinions of a listener... [M]ental state verbs seem directly related to interpretive function, but ambiguously related to the speakers authority and comfort, either as an organizer of the conversational flow or as an interpreter of authoritative texts. -Davis Sources William Croft,  Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Relations: The Cognitive Organization of Information. The University of Chicago Press, 1991Peggy Cooper Davis, Performing Interpretation: A Legacy of Civil Rights Lawyering in  Brown v. Board of Education.  Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education, ed. by Austin Sarat. Oxford University Press, 1997Michael Israel, Mental Spaces and Mental Verbs in Early Child English.  Language in the Context of  Use: Discourse and Cognitive Approaches to Language, ed. by Andrea Tyler, Yiyoung Kim, and Mari  Takada. Mouton de Gruyter, 2008Peter Knapp and  Megan Watkins,  Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologies for Teaching and Assessing Writing. UNSW, 2005Benjamin Lee,  Talking Heads: Language, Metalanguage, and the Semiotics of Subjectivity. Duke University Press, 1997David Ludden,  The Psychology of Language: An Integrated Approach. SAGE, 2016​Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Richard Dasher, On the Histo rical Relation Between Mental and Speech Act Verbs in English and Japanese.  Papers from the 7th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, ed. by Anna Giacalone-Ramat et al., 1987

Ethical Dilemma Of Artificial Intelligence - 1345 Words

The major ethical dilemma faced in the series Westworld is a problem that we as human will have to eventually address. The rate at which technology is advancing is incredible and there have been great strides that have been accomplished when it comes to our progress on Artificial Intelligence. Therefore, there has been ongoing ethical debate about weather or not humans should ultimately extend rights to Artificial Intelligence once it becomes sentient. Many highly respectable persons, such as Bill Gates, Elon Musk, Stephen Hawking, and Steve Wozniak have all voiced their concerns against Artificial Intelligence; even going as far as saying it could lead to the eventual demise of all of mankind. Furthermore, at the International Joint†¦show more content†¦The only way humans in Westworld were able to justify such treatment of the hosts was to distance themselves by stating that they were just simply machines who were unable to comprehend their mistreatment. Theresa confirms this in Season 1 Episode 1 The Original when she remarks, â€Å"[Westworld] works because the guests know they’re not real†. This mindset ignored the long-term affects of the trauma inflicted on the hosts. In an article in World View, Hutan Ashrafian made an excellent point about holding intelligent machines to the same standards as human beings because â€Å"if we were to allow sentient machines to commit injustices on one another — even if these ‘crimes’ did not have a direct impact on human welfare — this might reflect poorly on our own humanity.† That’s why Logan’s statement about Westworld ability to â€Å"show you who you are† rings true. Especially for William who ended up transforming into the most horrific character in the series the Man in Black. Unfortunately, that sort of dark switch in character is not limited to fiction. In the Stanford Prison Experiment conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo, it showed how dark of a turn ordinary people could take when either pushed to the limit or given so much power of authority over others. â€Å"The study subjects, middle-class college students, had answered a questionnaire about their family backgrounds, and had been deemed â€Å"normal†; a coin flip divided them intoShow MoreRelatedThe Moral And Ethical Issues Of Artificial Intelligence1151 Words   |  5 Pagesbecame interweaved into the culture’s fabric and became acceptable. The key to understanding the moral and ethical issues raised by artificial intelligence are the four levels on which intelligent artifacts raise ethical and moral problems. The first level concerns the ethical uses of computers and how humans respond to a world that is constantly being transformed by artificial intelligence machines. 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The Good Life Perspectives of Buddha and Confucius Free Essays

There are several definitions of the technical term â€Å"good life† and there are countless standards on â€Å"how one should live†, however, there are two personalities that teach differently with regards to this. This paper entitled â€Å"The Good Life: Perspectives of Buddha and Confucius† intends to answer the following questions: 1) â€Å"What is the ‘good life’ according to Buddha? †; 2) â€Å"What is the ‘good life’ according to Confucius? †; 3) â€Å"How should one live according to Buddha? †; and last but not least 4) â€Å"How should one live according to Confucius? †. II. We will write a custom essay sample on The Good Life: Perspectives of Buddha and Confucius or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Good Life According to Buddha The good life according to Buddha is to live according to certain standards that will lead one to obtain the â€Å"definitive life of bliss† (Thapar, 1966). In addition to that the â€Å"good life† is where â€Å"equal treatment† is experienced (Thapar, 1966). This is stated under the category â€Å"Sunyata† (Thapar, 1966). Furthermore, it also entails â€Å"nirvana†, which means that â€Å"whatever happens or no matter how disordered incidents may turn out to be, there will always be perfect peace, as well as, fairness in the end† (Gotiangco, 2001). Believing in such is already living the good life according to Buddha (Gotiangco, 2001). Moreover, living the good life is also to practice the combination of â€Å"compassion and wisdom† (Gotiangco, 2001). This means that individuals ought to show sympathy towards other people which may be achieved by â€Å"understanding the real meaning of life (Gotiangco, 2001). He reiterated that â€Å"wisdom should be developed as well to be able to impart the right teachings of Buddhism while compassion should also be present to be able to appropriately carry out the appropriately the teachings of Buddhism† (Gotiangco, 2001). Last but not least is to â€Å"develop wisdom and faith† which involves the conviction with open-mindedness to be able to see visibly other people’s point of view without any preconceived notion and foregone conclusion; belief with extremely profound contemplation to be able to be acquainted with its soundness; commitment with efforts to be able to really comprehend it; and confidence with realization to be able to recognize that there is really no difference between the belief of an individual and the truth (Gotiangco, 2001). III. The Good Life According to Confucius The good life according to Confucius is a never-ending aspiration for moral faultlessness/perfection (Gotiangco, 2001). IV. How One Should Live According to Buddha According to Buddha, one should live in a matter that observes the following: A. Essential Teachings First of all, the basic and essential teachings of Buddha should be learned and practiced by an individual (Thapar, 1966). These include the following: â€Å"1) the Four Noble Truths which include the following: a) Noble Truth of Sorrow; b) Noble Truth of Arising Sorrow; c) Noble Truth of the Stopping of Sorrow; and d) Noble Truth of the Way which leads to the Stopping of Sorrow; as well as 2) The Noble Eightfold Path which consists of the following: a) Right Speech; b) Right Views; c) Right Conduct; d) Right Resolve; e) Right Effort; f) Right Recollection; g) Right Mediation; and h) Right Livelihood† (Thapar, 1966). B. Steps to Follow to Achieve a Life of Bliss and Perfection Second is to be extremely aware of the concrete steps to attain â€Å"a life of bliss and perfection† (Thapar, 1966). The following should then be followed: 1) It is important for one to discover what causes suffering to be felt or experienced (Thapar, 1996). Buddha technically defined suffering as â€Å"anything that hinders preference or anything which go against an individual’s will, for instance death, illnesses, etc† (Thapar, 1966). ) It is needed for an individual to know what he or she should do to be able to avoid encountering suffering (Thapar, 1966). Likewise, an individual is obliged to â€Å"control himself or herself† and to â€Å"fight off suffering† which â€Å"presents itself through lust, negative emotions, hatred, lapse in judgment, as well as, self-centeredness† (Thapar, 1966). This is in connection with the one mentioned in Part A of this section/category that te achings should be read incessantly to be able to internalize it (Thapar, 1966). This is because such internalization and habitual meditation will play a large role in letting go of wants and release of disparaging mania/fixations which will eventually keep the mind and body of a person to be calm (Thapar, 1966). Of course, to live calmly is to be able to initiate goodwill and capability of delivering rational decisions which are all parts of the good life according to Buddha (Thapar, 1966). 3) Last but not least is to know what is technically known as karma (Thapar, 1966). Buddha said that â€Å"since the calmness, rational judgment and goodwill are already present then it can be claimed that rebirth or karma has already taken place (Thapar, 1966). A human being who now actually has better control of herself/himself may now attain â€Å"perfect bliss or nirvana†, which in turn is the objective of living and so the most basic principle to how one should live as well (Thapar, 1966). V. How One Should Live According to Confucius There is a set of standards that one should follow according to Confucius (Gotiangco, 2001). It entails being ethical and being humanitarian (Gotiangco, 2001). Specifically, there are three elements included in the aforementioned two and these are â€Å"human relations, virtues, as well as, rituals† (Gotiangco, 2001). All these components are required or needed to be able to meet the standards on how one should really live from the perspective of Confucius (Gotiangco, 2001). A. Human Relations Human relations should be very harmonious according to Confucius (Gotiangco, 2001). The five kinds of human relations that should be kept are the following: â€Å"1) parents – children; 2) husband – wife; 3) older – younger; 4) friend – friend; and last but not least 5) ruler – subject† (Gotiangco, 2001). He advises that â€Å"a parent should be able to understand what a parents really means; a husband should know how to be a good husband; a daughter or a girl should be able to internalize the allusions highly related with being a female or a daughter; likewise, a ruler or a subject should be familiar of being a ruler or a subject respectively (Gotiangco, 2001). He said that everybody is anticipated to â€Å"relate† in accordance with the aforementioned kinds of relationships to be able to achieve harmony and maintain stability as well (Gotiangco, 2001). B. Virtues He thus reiterates that all the members of the family should be provided with the proper training to be able to exhibit the suitable and proper values relevant to the relationship they are involved with (Gotiangco, 2001). The training referred to here by Confucius include the following: First of all is â€Å"loyalty† (Gotiangco, 2001). Second is â€Å"filial piety† â€Å"which is technically defined as â€Å"the Chinese way of showing respect to parents and ancestors† (Gotiangco, 2001). Third is known as â€Å"obedience† (Gotiangco, 2001). Last but not least is better known as â€Å"conduct† (Gotiangco, 2001). Confucius stated that to be familiar with the aforementioned appropriate values will help people be more conscious of what they are about to carry out and since it maintains good relationships with others then it is a way of living the good life (Gotiangco, 2001). C. Rituals There are certain â€Å"rituals† that must be observed (and should be instilled preferably during childhood) as well according to Confucius (Gotiangco, 2001). Some of these are the following: First is to provide â€Å"formal education† to individuals (Gotiangco, 2001). This is in addition to the parental assistance and regulation given to their children (Gotiangco, 2001). Second is the â€Å"worshipping of ancestors† (Gotiangco, 2001). This is important it is effective in instituting and upholding â€Å"high esteem, reverence, faithfulness, as well as, loyalty among the members of the immediate family, as well as, that of the clan† (Gotiangco, 2001). Third is â€Å"contemplative reading or meditation† (Gotiangco, 2001). Confucius stated that the aforementioned is needed to enlighten the mind, invigorate it, as well as, instill and advocate values like tolerance/staying power, self-control/temperance, as well as, calmness that’s welled up inside a person (Gotiangco, 2001). He added that in times of extreme conflict or catastrophes, such values will definitely help the person (Gotiangco, 2001). Last but not least is the training in what is technically referred to as the â€Å"Confucian Six Arts† (Gotiangco, 2001). Included in the â€Å"Confucian Six Arts† are the following: ) â€Å"Music and Literature†, which are considered necessary for the â€Å"purposes of humanism and finesse† (Gotiangco, 2001). 2) â€Å"Mathematics†, which helps challenge and eventually sharpen â€Å"mental awareness† and â€Å"logic† (Gotiangco, 2001). 3) â€Å"Callligraphy†, which actually trains one to become extremely patient and strong-minded/indomitable (Gotian gco, 2001). 4) â€Å"Martial Arts†, which helps and molds someone to exhibit exactness and meticulousness (Gotiangco, 2001). In addition to that, it encourages maintenance of the body to become physically fit (Gotiangco, 2001). ) â€Å"Archery†, which â€Å"according to the philosophy of Confucianism, is needed for the purposes of developing deference, as well as, agility† (Gotiangco, 2001). 6) â€Å"Chariot Racing†, which Confucius says that it highly increases fortitude/stamina, as well as, adroitness/dexterity (Gotiangco, 2001). 5) â€Å"Confucian Literature Reading†, wherein a child is compelled to read the following books everyday: â€Å"a) I Ching or the Book of Change; b) Shuh Ching or the Book of History; c) Shih Ching or the Book of Odes; d) Spring and Autumn Annals; e) the Analects; f) the Great Learning; and last but not least g) the Doctrine of the Mean† (Gotiangco, 2001). The aforesaid books serve as â€Å"directions† or â€Å"models† for people to follow and to light their paths as they keep up with life and face all the challenges/endeavors that may come their way (Gotiangco, 2001). Confucius reiterated that the aforementioned rituals is a critical part of â€Å"how one should live† and so it is very important to him to start early with the aforementioned rituals (Gotiangco, 2001). He said that traditions will not only be sustained, the community/society will be cultivated and taken cared of as well (Gotiangco, 2001). In addition to that, the spirit of reciprocity lives on as well† (Gotiangco, 2001). VI. Conclusion The good life according to Buddha is one that is directed to reach â€Å"a definitive life of bliss† while for Confucius â€Å"it is the unending desire to attain moral perfection† (Gotiangco, 2001). According to Buddha, one should live by knowing and practicing his teachings and following the step s to attaining â€Å"a life of bliss and perfection† while for Confucius, one should live by maintaining good relations, instilling virtues and observing rituals (Gotiangco, 2001). How to cite The Good Life: Perspectives of Buddha and Confucius, Papers

Difference of Modernism and Post Modernism Essay Example For Students

Difference of Modernism and Post Modernism Essay Modernism and Post ModernismHave you ever wondered what the differences are between the modernism and post modernism? It seems like it would be easy to describe what they are by the words and what they are usually associated with. Yet, its actually a lot different then your thinking. Modernism is the movement in visual arts, music, literature, and drama, which rejected the old Victorian standards of how art should be made, consumed, and what it should mean. Modernists want the absolute truth in everything. While on the other hand, Post Modernism is relating to, or being any of several movements (as in art, architecture, or literature) that are reactions against the philosophy and practices of modern movements and are marked by revival of traditional elements. By explaining a few things in detail I hope to show you a few things in contrast between the two in order to help you understand better. If modernists want the absolute truths in everything, do you think the human body would be something to work on? If you look in chapter thirty-four on pg. 871, you see figure 34.2 Fit for Active Service. What is going on in this drawing you might ask? Well it looks as though the fat German doctor is pointing out something to perfect with the skeleton. As you read through the text that describes what is being done it points to the army doctor pronouncing the skeletal cadaver O.K., hence, fit to serve in combat. The panel to the time to bring a skeletal cadaver in and figure out what would be good for the war and combat on the human body. Definitely looking for the flaws and how to perfect them to make themselves stronger. There seems to be no need for mistake in what they are doing and proceeding this way will fix any misconceptions they may have with the human body and war combat. A man once lived by the name of Wilfred Owen and he wrote of the waste of human life and resources in the events of war. He also felt that is was overly barbaric to involve oneself with war. When you read through his poem reading 6.7, he explains to you the horror and reality of what is actually going on in the battlefield. The first few lines give you the feeling of what the men are going through. Line five and six explain that, Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots, but limped on, blood-shod. All went lame, all blind. Owen points out that there is no beauty in dying for your country and that it is all a lie on what has been made a reality for many. Whats ironic about it all is that the poet died in combat at only 25 years old. Thus, making it that much more real in what he is trying to push across the minds of other people with this poem. Its not just another poem its reality. Postmodernism shows its face in many ways. One painting that I picked that you might find interest ing is figure 36.2. Betye Saar portrays what looks to be Aunt Jemima in a fashion that goes completely against what she was first introduced as being. When you think of this famous face you would think of walking into a cozy kitchen and pouring syrup on your pancakes, but here she is seen with a rifle next to her side in a complete difference from the as its put in the text mammy stereotype. Along side of her in an effort to break the chain of descriptions whites were making, Robert Colescott creates parodies of famous paintings in which whites are recast as their stereotype blacks were. Starting the shots back at what modern people portrayed in some art. After World War 1, jazz came to full fruition as an art form. It was argued that jazz was the product of place and not race yet as it is said on page 923, the role of African-Americans in the origins and evolution of jazz is indisputable. Looking at figure 36.4 King Olivers Creole Jazz Band, you see the elements of jazz and how it came to be that it was primarily a performers rather then a composers art once again pushing further from the norm of modernism. It had a wide range of Euro and Afro-American concepts including harmony, melody, and tone color. As in modern music there is a beat that is followed but with jazz there was a term made called swing. This is described as the practice of playing just off the beat whether slightly ahead or behind. There is more and more to read into what jazz really is and the further you read the more you see it is a total opposite of modern music. Still wondering what Modernism and Postmodernism are? Modernism is the movement in visual arts, music, and literature. While Postmodernism are reactions against the philosophy and practices of modern movements including these arts, music, and literature. I have explained four different viewpoints of mine describing the difference between the two in the period in which they were active during these eras. Differences between the Vi sual arts, literature, and music have all been touched in these paragraphs to help you understand it better. It can be kind of difficult to understand what truly was going on during these times. I believe this should relieve some of the pressure of what exactly you are looking for.